Jazmee27 
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18
OVERVIEW OF CLASSICAL THEMES
Homer's Iliadhad a major impact on ancient Greek culture. This powerful tale of the Trojan war intertwined I he lives of humans with the whims of Olympian gods and provided a mythical ideal of the hero.
does the stone go that is worn away by the waterfall? 1 cannot see it being chipped away. What is this invisible 'stuff' that 'goes away'?" And, again: "Where did 'stuff' come from? Where does it go?" (See Chapter 3 for a fuller account of this stage of philosophical development.)
a NATURE AND CONVENTION
In their efforts to provide unified rational explanations, these early philosophers first concentrated on the "world order," kostnos in Greek, and "nature," phusis or physis in Greek. You may recognize the roots of the English words cosmos and physics in these ancient Greek terms.
Around the fifth century, an element of specialization emerged. Actually, the word "division" is probably more accurate than "specialization" because philosophers began to distinguish between nature (physis) and convention (nomos), rather than to specialize along narrower lines. The terms "norm,""normative," and "normal" derive from the Greek root nomos. In the West, humanistic philosophers known as Sophists (Chapter 4) turned away from the study of nature and toward the study of "man." In China and Southeast Asia, humanistic sages (Chapter 2) turned away from the study of gods and spirits and toward the study of "man" and nature.
s CONTEMPORARY LESSONS FROM THE PAST
You're right to wonder about the use of the word "man" here: The ancient world was socially hierarchical and chauvinistic. It was hierarchical in its divisions of people into social classes of varying status, influence, and power according to nationality, bloodlines (a crude form of "racial" thinking), gender, language and dialect, talent, and beauty.
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Reply #2641. Dec 09 11, 5:44 PM
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Jazmee27
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19
OVERVIEW OF CLASSICAL THEMES
The Olympian god Atlas was said to support the world on his shoulders. Growing dissatisfied with such mythological accounts of natural phenomena, Presocratic philosophers sought rational explanations.
For many—but not all—classical philosophers, women were, by nature, not capable of philosophical reasoning. Of course, in this, the philosophers were not alone; they reflected the norms of their times, as did many women. The sage Confucius (Chapter 2), for example, compared women to servants who were easily offended. Plato, arguably the single most influential Western philosopher, thought of women as "lesser men," although he also allows women in the ranks of the philosopher-kings who occupy the highest strata in his ideal state (Chapter 6). Aristotle (Chapter 7), one of the most significant thinkers in the history of Western philosophy, thought of women as "mistakes" of nature—"incomplete" or "misbegotten" men. The hedonist Epicurus, on the other hand, made no philosophical distinctions between men and women (Chapter 8).
Some of the most important and complex questions philosophers ask today concern proper attitudes toward thinkers from the past. Chapters 10,12, and 18 address this issue directly, and reference to it recurs throughout our philosophical journey. But at the beginning of this inquiry, let me encourage you to seek empathetic understanding before passing judgment on new ideas and those who advocate them. Practicing this principle helps avoid confusing issues and arguments with the persons who advocate them. (See the "Persons and Arguments" box on page 20.)
m THE SEARCH FOR EXCELLENCE
One of the major themes in ancient philosophy is the search for general human excellence, or virtue. The Greek word for virtue (arete) means "excellence" and is associated with potency and functionality. Thus, something lacking in "virtue" fails to function in some way. Without virtue, things are "dysfunctional."
r
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Reply #2642. Dec 09 11, 5:44 PM
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Jazmee27
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20
OVERVIEW OF CLASSICAL THEMES
PERSONS AND ARGUMENTS
When we uncritically and rigidly apply contemporary values to past practices and ideas, we commit the fallacy of anachronism. Even though we can never be sure that our current understanding of the past is "accurate," we can make good-faith efforts to understand the conditions that affected people's thinking and acting. Doing so does not commit us to some form of relativism or prevent us from evaluating ideas from other times and cultures. Rather, understanding the historical context that gives rise to a philosophical point of view allows us to cull from the richness and complexity of the entire human condition. Further, we do not need to reject an entire philosophical enterprise just because we find some aspect of it unacceptable—unless what's
unacceptable is the heart of the enterprise or is entailed by essential components of it.
Just as we do not want to uncritically impose contemporary values on ancient philosophers, neither do we want to reject a philosopher's arguments because we object to that philosopher's personal habits or beliefs. When we do that, we commit what is known as the ad hominetn fallacy. Ad hominem is Latin for "at the man." In this context it means "against the arguer, against the person making the argument." (Ironically, the term ad hominem presents us with an example of the pervasiveness and ambiguity of terms based on the root "man": "mankind," "human," "chairman," "humanistic," even "woman.")
In the West, the philosophical search for human excellence links the Sophists (Chapter 4) to Socrates (Chapter 5), Plato (Chapter 6}, Aristotle (Chapter 7), and the Stoics (Chapter 8). In Asia, the ancient sages also produced long-standing theories of virtue and well-being (Chapter 2).
0 THE SEARCH FOR HAPPINESS
As a rule, ancient philosophers did not distinguish between "being good" and "being happy" the way many of us do today. Rather, they thought of "living the good life" as "living well," in the sense of thriving, of being healthy or "fully human."
Today, it is common to equate "being happy" with almost any form of "personal satisfaction." If happiness is a feeling, then I cannot be wrong about being happy: If I feel happy, I am happy. This particular view of happiness defines "being happy" in purely subjective and individualistic terms.
Classical notions of happiness were often more complicated. A helpful analogy here is between being healthy and feeling healthy and being happy and feeling happy. It's easy to understand that Margaret may not be well even though Margaret feels well. In other words, Margaret can be unhealthy and feel fine. Conversely, Joe can be convinced that he is dying from cancer even though he is cancer-free. Further, unhealthy individuals can—because they are unhealthy—get used to being sick. Thus, the habitual smoker "feels good" when she poisons herself with a puff on a cigar, but "feels bad" when she acts wisely and refrains from smoking.
If, however, more than subjective conditions are necessary for happiness, then the individual is not the determiner of happiness. In such a view, it is possible to think you are happy and be wrong. If that sounds crazy to you, you are not alone. But before dismissing more complex notions of happiness, wait and see what sorts of reasons the classical philosophers give for their views.
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Reply #2643. Dec 09 11, 5:45 PM
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Jazmee27
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Note: These files are from my scanner
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Reply #2644. Dec 09 11, 5:45 PM
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Jazmee27
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I asked Mom if she has any plans this weekend:
- Chiropractor appointment, 8:30 in the morning tomorrow
- She might spend time with Stephanie
- She has to go into the office at some point this weekend
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Reply #2645. Dec 09 11, 5:48 PM
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Jazmee27
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CONFUCIUS and BUDDHA
I
HE WHO LEARNS BUT DOES NOT THINK IS LOST; HE WHO THINKS BUT DOES NOT LEARN IS IN DANGER.
Confucius
IF YOU WILL NOW AND AT ALL TIMES, WHETHER WALKING,
STANDING, SITTING, OR LYING, ONLY CONCENTRATE ON ELIMINATING ANALYTIC THINKING, AT LONG LAST YOU WILL INEVITABLY DISCOVER THE TRUTH Buddha
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Reply #2646. Dec 09 11, 5:51 PM
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Jazmee27
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saga
Archetypal figure who combines religious inspiration and extraordinary insight into the human condition; the English word sage is derived from the Latin sapiens, meaning "wise."
Too
Literally "way" or "path," Tao (or Dad] is variously translated as the source of all existence, the principle of all things, the way or path of the universe, or the moral law; key concept in Confucian and Taoist philosophy.
yin
In Ancient Chinese metaphysics, weak, negative, dark, and destructive natural "force" or principle; Earth; linked widi yang.
yong
In Ancienl Chinese metaphysics, strong, positive, light, and constructive naiural "force" or principle; Heaven; linked with yin.
ur survey of philosophical archetypes begins with a look at two of the most influential philosophical archetypes of all time, the sages Confucius and Buddha. A therapeutic figure who combines religious inspiration with extraordinary insight into the human condition, the sage is the oldest of philosophical archetypes." The English word sage is derived from the Latin sapiens, meaning "wise." The term sage has been used to refer to masters associated with religious traditions and to the wise elders of a group or tribe. Philosophers who address how we live and whose lives reflect noteworthy integrity, compassion, and courage are also referred to as sages. As a rule, the ancient sages focused on identifying the root causes of happiness and unhappiness, Today, the title sage is associated with individuals who manifest a deep, lifelong commitment to learning and teaching that extends beyond an academic or merely theoretical interest in living wisely.
a THE HARMONY OF HEAVEN AND EARTH
In ancient Asian cosmologies, all events were said to be interconnected. In ancient Chinese cosmology, everything was influenced by the harmonious working together of Heaven and Earth following the Tao of all existence. Literally "way" or "path," Too (or Doo) cannot be precisely defined or "named." It is translated as the source of all existence, the principle of all things, the way or path of the universe, or the moral law. Tao "unfolds" and "influences" all of nature while remaining hidden from empirical (sensory) experience.
In this cosmology, Heaven and Earth constitute a single reality, a sort of Heaven-Earth, rather than two diametrically opposed and separate realities; nature consists of the continual interaction of two opposing, but not separable, forces known as yin (Earth, passive element) and yang (Heaven, active element). Yin is weak, negative, dark, and destructive; yang is strong, positive, light, and constructive. Heaven (yang) and Earth (yin) exist in a perpetually harmonious balance, actually a perpetual balancing, according to Tao. Yin and yang go so far back in Chinese history that we cannot be sure of their original meanings. The
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Reply #2647. Dec 09 11, 5:54 PM
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Jazmee27
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The intellect can understand any part of a thing as apart, but not as a whole.
R. H. Blyth
By nature men are alike. Through practice they have become far apart.
Confucius
With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and with a bent arm for a pillow, there is still joy. Wealth and honor obtained through unrighteousness are but floating clouds to me.
Confucius
Only the most intelligent and the most stupid do not change.
Confucius
classic Confucian text The Doctrine of the Mean says, "Equilibrium is the great foundation of the world, and harmony its universal path.1
By the fifth century B.C.E., yin and yang were thought of as inextricably linked together. Each was viewed as an expression of the other, operating together in a never-ending cycle of coming together and falling apart, birth and death, wet and dry, day and night, good and evil, male and female, full and empty. This ceaseless interplay of opposing forces is the natural order of things. "Part" and "whole" cannot be understood—much less exist—without each other. How could they? The very essence of being a part requires a whole to be a part of, and there can be no whole without parts.
Thus, there are no firm (permanent and fixed) divisions between the spiritual and the physical or between the natural and the supernatural, nor is there a distinct division between the divine and the human, between reason and intuition.2 Therefore, Tao, the way of Heaven-Earth, cannot be understood analytically, considered piecemeal, individually.
But if life consists of some fundamental, never-ending, and harmonious exchange, why do we so often experience it as a series of apparently discrete, independent events and either-or options? We experience life, or more properly the illusion of life, as discrete events because we are unenlightened and confused. Unaware that the flow of Tao cannot be "trapped," we identify with particularities; we prefer the familiar to the exclusion of all else; we cling to things for fear of losing them; we confuse words (labels) with perception (experience). It falls to the sage to identify and preserve Tao by refining the way we talk about it.3
So elusive is this goal that even the sages, with all their wisdom, remain susceptible to the partial view. They disagree over whether human beings are naturally good or naturally evil, over whether Tao is best realized actively through social customs and training (Confucius) or through setting aside all personal striving while spreading compassion to others (Buddha). The Taoist sage Lao-tzu (see box, pages 24-25) recommends passively going with the flow of Tao by abandoning social cultivation and following our natural instincts. Yet for all their apparent differences, the sages insist—if that's the word for it—that suffering, division, and strife need not be our permanent condition, for we share a common human nature from which we can learn. Religion, philosophy, culture, and politics are themselves manifestations of Tao; they interact as complementary parts of a single reality perpetually seeking balance.
If you are unfamiliar with the teachings of the ancient philosophical sages, don't be fooled into thinking that because they talk about harmony and balance sages are preachy "anti-life" figures who don't have anything practical to offer a high-tech, high-energy, individualistic, competitive society. Perhaps the high-tech, specialized (disharmonious) nature of our lives means that just the opposite is true. The lasting appeal and influence of the sages suggests that we're not completely sold on the pursuit of fame, power, riches and prestige, even though we can't just toss our interest in them aside. In distinct but overlapping ways, these archetypal figures encourage us to achieve sagehood for ourselves.
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Reply #2648. Dec 09 11, 5:55 PM
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Jazmee27
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Lao-tzu (c. 575 B.C.E.) is the first great Taoist sage, Legend says that he was a bureaucrat known only by a nickname variously translated as Old Master, Old Man, Old Boy, or Old Philosopher. Lao-tzu is credited with compiling the Too te Ching undei a pseudonym as a form of self-preservation, since he, like Confucius, lived during the Period of the Warring States.
It is said that when Lao-tzu was 160 years old he grew so disgusted with the hypocrisy and decay of his time that he quit his bureaucratic position to pursue virtue in a more natural environment. When he reached the Han-ku Pass, the keeper of the pass recognized the old sage and said, "You are about to withdraw yourself from sight. I pray you compose a book for me." Lao-tzu honored the keeper'sreqjjest
by producing the little (5,000-word) book known today as the Too te Citing. In fact, however, we know very little of Lao-tzu.
Next to the Analects of Confucius, the Taote Ching is the most influential book in Chinese history. Nearly a thousand commentaries on it have been written in China and Japan alone and the Tao te Ching, or The Classic of the Way and the Power (Virtue), is second only to the Bible in the number of translations available in English.
What accounts for the power of this slim volume, usually divided into eighty-one "chapters" of a page or less in length? Some scholars claim (hat the Tao te Ching is so cloudy and obscure, so romantic and "poetic," that the reader is free to make it mean anything. A more intriguing possibility is that the book credited to the secretive, perhaps fearful Old Boy, expresses genuine wisdom.
In the opening Stanza of the Tao te Ching, Lao-tzu signals us that ever-flowing Tao cannot be captured in systems or words:
The way that can be "way-ed" Is not the constant Way. The name that can be named . Is not the constant name.
Lao-tzu, Tao te Ching
The superior man stands in awe of three things. He stands in awe of the Mandate of Heaven; he stands in awe of great men; and he stands in awe of the words of the sages. The inferior man is ignorant of the Mandate of Heaven and does not stand in awe of it. He is disrespectful of great men and is contemptuous toward the words of the sages. Confucius
a SAGEHOOD
The sages' focus on achieving harmony and virtue here and now is always a response to the social conditions in which they live. For Confucius and Lao-tzu, this was a time of such widespread political and social turmoil that it came to be known as the Period of the Warring Stales. Although traditional Chinese history holds that the Period of the Warring States began in 453 B.c.E. and lasted for nearly 550 years, some historians push the beginning as far back as 771 B.C,E.
The Period of the Warring States was marked by fierce struggles for power waged by a succession of warring princes. The resulting civil wars became increasingly violent as armies ignored the customs and traditional rules of conduct known as H that had previously prevented wholesale pillage and destruction. Each atrocity was answered with an equal or greater atrocity. In one notorious incident, soldiers from one army were not paid until they showed the paymaster the severed heads of their enemies.
A. C. Graham, a leading authority on Chinese thought and grammar, describes the teachings of the ancient sages as responses to the "breakdown of the rule of Heaven" and the moral and political chaos that resulted. Instead of asking
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Reply #2649. Dec 09 11, 5:56 PM
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Jazmee27
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THE ASIAN SAGE: CONFUCIUS AND BUDDHA
What has no name is the beginning of heaven
and earth,
What has a name is the mother of myriad things.
Lao-tzu poignantly remarks that although we cannot talk about the Tao, "people cannot cease discussing It"—and that includes, of course, Lao-tzu. His "solution" to the problem of expressing the Way that cannot be trapped in words is a paradoxical way of communicating in which contradictory assertions and demands keep us from fixing on one "trapped" or "dead" interpretation. The sage's hope is that this kind of giving with one hand and taking with the other will draw us in the direction of the Way.
When we consider all the philosophical, religious, and scientific talk about life, virtue, ultimate meaning, Lao-tzu's puzzling opening lines attain the power of profound insight: Talk in the form of once-and-for-all, absolute, fixed systems, dogmas, and theories pales beside living itself.
The ancient sages took "saying" or "naming" seriously. Once a thing has been named ("right," "wrong," "true," "false," "God," "man," "higher," "lower"), we tend to cling to its name, to one perspective. By clinging, we become "dead" in Lao-tzu's
scheme of things, losing sight of the ever-flowing range of possibilities, perspectives, and conditions that always go beyond the names we give them.
We must, Lao-tzu suggests, sometimes violate our own rules and systems if we wish to be decent human beings responsive to the ebb and flow of life teeming around us. We must respond and resonate to the "ultimate something" that throbs with life just beyond the edge of understanding. Lao-tzu says:
When the people of the world all know beauty as beauty
There arises the recognition of ugliness. When they all know the good as good,
There arises the recognition of evil. Therefore:
Being and non-being produce each other;
Difficult and easy complete each other;
Long and short contrast each other;
High and low distinguish each other;
Sound and voice harmonize with each other;
Front and back follow each other.
The first excerpt is from A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao (La Salle: Open Court, 1989), p. 219; the second is from Wing-Tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 140.
To live in the company of Men-at-their-best is the finest thing possible. How can a man be considered wise if, when he has the choice, he does not live in such surroundings?
Confucius
When you find something that is bad or that turns out bad, drop it and leave it alone.
Sitting Bull
"What is the truth?" as early Western philosophers did, the Asian sages asked "Where is the Way (Tao)?" Where, they wondered, is the way back to social order and proper conduct?4 As a result of their practical concerns, the teachings of the sages are marked by what the philosopher Michael Brannigan characterizes as "an intimate rapport between philosophy and its actualization in society."5
A "fully human" sensitivity links the two sages we'll look at in this chapter, each of whom speaks from intimate knowledge of suffering and disappointment. Offering anyone who will listen the fruits of their hard-earned "research," sages perform a complex social function: part physician of the soul, part prophet, part preacher, part philosopher, part fellow seeker. In subsequent chapters, we'll look at the Western sages Socrates (Chapter 5), Epicurus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aure-lius (all Chapter 8).
Unsurprisingly, the sage has no exact equivalent today, at least not in this culture, a culture that encourages individuation and competition, seemingly perpetual social war—precisely what the sages sought to overcome. In this regard, you might find it interesting to contrast the sage with the more "warlike" Sophist, a might-makes-right seller of methods for getting whatever one wants, whose philosophy seems surprisingly contemporary. Sophists are discussed in Chapter 4.
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Reply #2650. Dec 09 11, 5:57 PM
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Jazmee27
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PHILOSOPHICAL QUERY
Based on what you've read so far, can you think of any contemporary examples of sages? If you can, what specific qualities or teachings impress you as sagelike? If you can't, why do you suppose you can't?
Confucius
When substance exceeds refinement, one becomes rude. When refinement exceeds substance, one becomes urbane, it is only when one's substance and refinement are properly blended that he becomes a superior man. Confucius
The superior man does what is proper to his position and does not want to go beyond this.
Confucius
B THE SOCIAL SAGE: CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) is the Latinized name of K'ungFu-tzu or Master K'ung, the honorific name of K'ung Ch'iu of Lu, a legendary teacher who vainly sought high political office so that he could initiate a series of governmental reforms. In response to what he saw as widespread social decline, Confucius promoted social order based on humanity (benevolence), custom, and personal moral cultivation.
As a teacher and would-be political reformer, Confucius tried to produce political harmony by cultivating moral harmony within each individual. "Guide the people by governmental measures," he said, "and regulate them by the threat of punishment, and the people will have no sense of honor and shame. Guide the people by virtue and regulate them by It (rules of conduct and sense of propriety) and the people will have a sense of honor and respect.6
One disciple characterized Confucius as "gentle but dignified, austere, yet not harsh, polite and completely at ease." When another disciple admitted that he had been unable to describe Confucius to the king, Confucius said, "Why didn't you tell him that I am a man who forgets all worries when he is happy, and who is not aware that old age is coming on?" To a disciple who liked to criticize people. Confucius said, "Ah Sze, you are very clever, aren't you? I have no time for such things." On another occasion, some young people from a village known for its mischief-making came to see Confucius, who welcomed them. This surprised his disciples. "Why be harsh with them?" the sage gently replied. "What concerns me is how they come and not what they do when they go away. When a man approaches me with pure intentions, I respect his pure intentions, although 1 cannot guarantee what he does afterwards."7
Confucius was not always so accepting, however, particularly when it came to "the inferior (or petty) man." He especially disliked hypocrites, whom he called goody-goody thieves of virtue and "rice bags"—that is, people only good for filling their bellies with rice. Confucius took good manners and proper social customs seriously because he was convinced that they are necessary for social order and individual moral cultivation. He is said to have struck an elderly man on the shin with a walking stick for singing disrespectfully at the man's mother's funeral. "As a young boy," Confucius said to the ill-mannered fellow, "you were unruly; when grown up, you have accomplished nothing; and now in your old age you refuse to die. You are a tliiefl"8
Gnat Man demands it of himself; Petty Man, of others.
Confucius
The Teacher
Confucius probably began teaching in his twenties or thirties. Legend has it that he was the first man in Chinese history to devote his whole life to teaching, teach-
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Reply #2651. Dec 09 11, 5:58 PM
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Jazmee27
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/ do not instruct the uninterested. I do not help those who fail to try. If I mention one corner of a subject and the pupil does not deduce therefrom the other three, I drop him.
Confucius
Is one not a superior man if he does not feel hurt even though he is not recognized?
Confucius
When a student asked Confucius about serving the spiritual beings, Confucius said, "If we are not yet able to serve man, how can we serve spiritual beings?" Then what about death, the student asked. Confucius said, "If we do not yet know about life, how can we know about death?"
ing even he worked as a public official in his home province of Lu. Although today he has a reputation as a conservative wedded to tradition, in his time Confucius was a daring and radical educator who defied traditional practices by making a new form of character education—as opposed to vocational training— available to all social classes. He is said to have had as many as three thousand pupils at once. In spite of his "open-door" approach to education, Confucius attracted a special class of gentlemen-scholars known as literati; the literati dominated Chinese history and culture for thousands of years.9
When he was fifty-six years old, Confucius retired from civil service because his superiors were uninterested in his ideas. For the next thirteen years he wandered and taught in what Wing-Tsit Chan calls a "desperate attempt" at social reform, traveling from state to state in search of a ruler who would listen to him. He seems to have had almost no success selling his reforms, although he did manage to win audiences with at least four dukes. At sixty-eight, dejected and disappointed, Confucius returned to Lu, where he continued to teach, write, and edit until his death.
Despite his failures as a political reformer, Confucius remains one of the great teachers of all time, probably surpassing even Socrates (Chapter 5) in the subsequent influence he has had on his culture. Like Socrates, Confucius was witty, humane, complicated, confident, and modest. Like Socrates, Confucius was unimpressed by wealth and social standing. "The people who live extravagantly," he said, "are apt to be snobbish (or conceited), and the people who live simply are apt to be vulgar. I prefer the vulgar people to the snobs."10
Shortly before he died, Confucius wept and said, "For a long time the world has been living in moral chaos, and no ruler has been able to follow me." Leaning on a stick, he walked slowly around his door, singing, "Ah! The Mountain is crumbling down! The pillar is falling down! The Philosopher is passing out!"11
A collection of Confucius's conversations known as the Analects is the single most influential book of Asian philosophy. Two other important Confucian texts are The Book ofMencius and The Hsun Tzu, named after their authors, the Confucian philosophers Mencius (c. 372-c. 298 B.C.E.) and Hsun Tzu (c. 313-c. 238
B.C.E.).
humanism
Name given to any philosophy that emphasizes human welfare and dignity; belief that human intelligence and effort are capable of improving conditions in the here and now.
H CONFUCIAN HUMANISM AND THE
GOLDEN MEAN
If one word characterizes the overall approach of the ancient sages, it is humanism, the name given to any philosophy that emphasizes human welfare and dignity. In general, humanism is based on the belief that human intelligence and effort are capable of improving present conditions.
Confucius's humanistic notion that "man can make the Way (Tao) great" was a radical departure from the traditional Chinese emphasis on nature spirits.12 In the Analects we are told that "The Master did not talk about marvels, feats of strength, irregularities, gods."13 When he was asked about serving ghosts and gods, Confucius said, "Until you can serve men, how can you serve the ghosts?"
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Reply #2652. Dec 09 11, 5:59 PM
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Jazmee27
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Heaven and Earth are no! humane. I The sage is not humane.
Lao-tzu
chung-yung
Literally "ccntrality and universality," the Golden Mean of Confucius, consisting of moderation and normality; universal moral law; also equilibrium or harmony.
Men ail say, "1 am wise"; but when driven forward and taken in a net, a trap, or a pitfall, none knows how to escape. Men all say, "lam wise"; but should they choose the course of the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month,
Confucius
A man with clever words and an ingratiating appearance is seldom a man of humanity.
Confucius
When he asked about death he said, "Until you know about life how can you know about death?" In other words, we should not be distracted by nonhuman matters that do not concern us.14 Asked about wisdom, Confucius said, "To work at doing right for the people, and to be reverent to the ghosts and gods but keep them at a distance, may be called wisdom."15
Conrucian humanism is rooted in Confucius's vision of himself as preserver
and restorer of a declining culture rather than as an inventor or creator of some
thing new.'6 "It is in transmitting but not originating, trusting in and loving the
ancient, that I would venture to compare myself,"he said.17 In contrast to con
temporary educational practices, Confucius stressed social preservation over in
dividual creation. Confucius acknowledged the need to think, but focused on the
importance oflearning. "I used to go without food all day, without sleep all night,
to think," he said. "No use, better to learn."18 ____
Learn what? Learn the way of chung-yung, the GoldenWeafr Variously translated as the Mean, moderation, normality, and universal mural law, chuna
t
ing literally means "centrality and universality." According to Wing-Tsit Cha(|! e Mean is the same as equilibrium or harmony By restoring equilibrium to the individual, Confucius thought, order would lie resiored to the family, to other relationships, to the state, to the world, to the universe. The Doctrine of the Mean, a text that some ancient scholars attributed to Confucius's grandson, expresses Confucius's characterization of Tao as a universal moral Mean:
1. What Heaven (Tien, Nature) imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the Way (Tao). Cultivating the Way is called education. The Way cannot be separated from us even for a moment. What can be separated from us is not the Way. Therefore the superior man is cautious over what he does not see and apprehensive over what he does not hear. There is nothing more visible than what is hidden and nothing more manifest that what is subtle. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself when he is alone.
Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy are aroused it is called equilibrium (chung, centrality, mean}. When these feelings are aroused and each and all attain due measure and degree, it is called harmony. Equilibrium is the great foundation of the world, and harmony its universal path. When equilibrium and harmony are realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will attain proper order and all things will flourish.
2. Chung-ni (Confucius) said, "The superior man [exemplifies] the Mean (chung-yung). The inferior man acts contrary to the Mean. The superior man [exemplifies] the Mean because, as a superior man, he can maintain the Mean at any time. The inferior man [acts contrary to] the Mean because, as an inferior man, he has no caution."
3. Confucius said, "Perfect is the Mean. For a long time few people have been able (o follow it."19
The pity is that, if Confucius is right, the Way is not far off, yet we fail to find it, choosing instead the little by-paths of imbalance and partiality. We eat and drink too much or too little, thereby savoring less. When we do seek self-
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Reply #2653. Dec 09 11, 5:59 PM
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Jazmee27
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When the great Tao declined, / The doctrine of humanity and righteousness arose.
Lao-tzu
Being fond of [the Way] is better than merely knowing it. Taking one's delight in it is better than merely being fond ofit.
Confucius
improvement for ourselves, we seek it for ourselves; we step away from the Mean (centrality and universality) into partiality:
4. Confucius said, "I know why the Way is not pursued. The intelligent gff » beyond it and the stupid do not come up to it. I know why the Way is not ^ understood. The worthy go beyond it and the unworthy do not come up
*; to it. There is no one who does not eat and drink, but there are few who can really know flavor."
5. Confucius said, "Alas! How the way is not pursued!" 13. Confucius said, "The Way is not far from man. When a man pursues the Way and yet remains away from man, his course cannot be considered the Way. The Book of Odes says, 'In hewing an axe handle, in hewing an axe handle, the pattern is not far off.' If we take an axe handle to hew another axe handle and look askance from the one to the other, we may still think the pattern is far away. Therefore the superior man governs men as men, in accordance with human nature, and as soon as they change [what is wrong], he stops. Conscientiousness (chung) and altruism (shu) are not far away from the Way. What you do not wish for others, do not do unto them."20
PHILOSOPHICAL QUERY
Great Man reaches complete understanding of the main issues; Petty Man reaches complete understanding of the minute details.
Confucius
Interestingly, the concept of a mean serves as the basis for Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, one of the most influential moral philosophies in the Western philosophical tradition. Compare Aristotle's more "linear" characterization of the mean with Confucius's more "holistic" or "poetic" one. Why do you suppose two of the most influential moral philosophers of all time stressed moderation and balance as the basis for human well-being and happiness? Aristotle's mean is discussed in Chapter 7.
te
Traditionally, morally neutral virtue; potency, the power to affect others without using physical force; expanded by Confucius to mean the capacity to act according to Tao and to bring others to Tao.
• VIRTUE AND CEREMONY
In the Analects Confucius confines the meaning of Tao to the proper course of human conduct and the organization of government. Confucius's focus on the organic relation of Tao and human virtue (te) marked the first time those concepts came to philosophical prominence in Chinese philosophy.21
Traditionally, te (virtue) meant potency, the power to affect others without using physical force. In this sense, te is morally neutral in the way that a knife's "virtues"—strength, flexibility, sharpness—are neutral. The same knife can be used to save a life in surgery or to take a life in anger. For both good and bad purposes, strength, flexibility, and sharpness are virtues in a knife. Although Confucius sometimes uses te in this functional, morally neutral sense, he also expands it to mean the capacity to act according to Tao and to bring others to Tao. In that use, Tao and te cannot be separated.22
According to Confucius, producing a harmonious society based on a good government and benevolent (virtuous) human relationships can only be
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Reply #2654. Dec 09 11, 6:03 PM
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Jazmee27
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Literally, "ceremony"; encompasses rites, customs, and conventions ranging from ritiul sacrifices honoring one's ancestors to everyday etiquette and good manners.
When there is a motive to be virtuous, there if no virtue.
LieZi
Great Man is always at ease; Petty Man is always on edge.
Confucius
chun-liu
Literally, "the lord's son";
originally the sovereign
himself or a "cultivaied
gentleman"; Conrudan
morally superior man; a
great or noble soul.
hsiao-jen ft'P
Small or vulgar man; in
Confucian philosophy, the
opposite of the chun-tzu; a
petty and base individual.
accomplished by mastering and honoring //. Literally, "ceremony," li encompasses rites, customs, and conventions ranging from ritual sacrifices honoring one's ancestors to everyday etiquette and good manners. If we don't master li, we stray from Tao and re and degenerate into disorder (dysfunction) and imbalance (disharmony).
By following li, we become gracious and welJ-mannered in all aspects of life, treating all people with dignity and respect. There is more at stake here than mere good manners because there is a sacred quality to li that transforms human relations from barbaric, not-truly-human interactions to fully human ones. This quality is independent of the particular ritual or ceremony involved, be it a religious service, a greeting or leave-taking, a shared meal, or observation of participation in a musical performance.23
Without mastering good manners and ceremonial forms {/»',) even our good acts will be Jacking. We wil] behave "insincerely," doing the right thing out of obedience rather than "with sincerity" and harmony. Without li, even great knowledge lacks virtue, potency, te: "Where things are not on course, if you harmonize by knowledge of harmony without regulating it by ceremony, they still cannot be put on course.'
"24
THE EXAMPLE OF THE CHUN-TZU
Whereas his great contemporary Lao-tzu associated Tao and te with nature independent of man, and with passivity and psychological withdrawal, Confucius associated them with human conduct and social order. He believed that in addition to rules and regulations (li), a harmonious society requires an elaborate bureaucracy of highly cultured and learned men to provide examples of conscientiousness and altruism.
To this end, Confucius, in another move away from traditiqn^modified the concept of the chun-tzu, or superior man. Prior to Confucius, chun-tzu, literally the lord's son, might refer to either the sovereign himself or to a "cultivate* gentleman." Although Confucius himself occasionally uses the term chun-tzu in these traditional ways, for the most part, and most significantly, he uses it to refer to the morally superior man, the great or noble soul. That the morally superior man is also a cultivated gentleman reflects Confucius's emphasis on the importance of li. So important are the nature and example of the superior man to Confucius, that the term chun-tzu occurs 107 times in the Analects.2*
The opposite of the chun-tzu is the h*iao*j»n, the small or vulgar man. The hsiao-jen is petty and base.26 The chun-tzu thinks of humanity; the hsiao-jen thinks of himself and perhaps those he sees as his "kind." The chun-tzu does not seek to put himself above or below others but seeks to help others by becoming noble himself. The hsiao-jen looks to others for help and competes with them; he is, in today's vernacular, partial to himself. Consequently, he disrespects li and departs from the Mean. When his disciple Yen Yuan asked about this, Confucius said:
"By conquest of self returning to ceremony one becomes noble. If by conquest of self you return to ceremony for a single day, the whole world will acknowledge you as noble. Becoming noble derives from oneself, not from others!"
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Reply #2655. Dec 09 11, 6:05 PM
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Jazmee27
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===
Would a sick person be helped merely by reading a medical text?
Shantiveda
Formerly men studied for self-improvement; today men study for the sake of appearances.
Confucius
"I would ask you to itemize it."
"What isn't according to ceremony don't look at, don't listen to, don't say, don't do."27
Confucius's faith in the moral power of the example of the superior man is particularly evident in an anecdote concerning a rapacious, rich official, an obviously inferior man. The greedy hsiao-jen told Confucius that he was worried about the high number of robbers in his province. Confucius's reply was blunt: "If you yourself don't love money, you can give the money to thieves and they won't take it."28
Note the harmonious blending of aesthetic, moral, social, and personal qualities that constitute Confucius's characterization of the chun-tzu in the Analects. Note, too, how unappealing the character of the inferior or petty hsiao-jen is in contrast—that is, by way of counterexample.
w PHILOSOPHICAL QUERY_________________
The notion of the noble or great soul has intrigued philosophers from Confucius's time to our own. Does it have any resonance for you? Is the concept of the petty or inferior soul clearer? If it is, why do you suppose that it is easier to come up with examples of pettiness than nobility? What do you think Confucius was really saying in his reply to the rapacious official? (Hint: Are giving and taking ambiguous?) Discuss.
jen
General human virtue; translated as human, humane^ humanitarian,
lence; can mean botl
•MHHOTMMHM11)
nuTrranRind and kindness; also a man or woman .who
Tuan-mu Tz'u asked about Great Man. "First he sets the good example, then he invites others to follow it."
Confucius
THE THREAD OF HUMANITY
The nobility that characterizes the Confucian chun-tzu is not a matter of bloodline (ethnicity) or political power (social status), but of character, specifically of humanity, or jen. Jen is a general human virtue, the humane principle rooted in empathy and fellow feeling. The Chinese character for jen is composed of "two" and "man," signifying the relationship between men. Jen has been translated as human, humane, humanitarian, humanity, and benevolence. According to Chinese American philosopher Lin Yutang,je« can have the double meaning of humankind and kindness, as well as referring to a man or woman who is truly himself or herself, a "real person," as it were.29 Jen is expressed by conscientiousness (chung) and altruism (shu), which in combination constitute the "one thread" of Confucianism.
Realization of jen leads to "full humanness," which we only achieve by learning how to balance the needs of self and others, the individual and society. Full humanness (nobility of soul) and harmony are the goals of Confucian moral cultivation, something to which all people are susceptible, at least to some degree. Because jen cannot be realized for oneself alone, good manners, proper customs, kindness, and social harmony converge:
A man of humanity wishing to establish his own character, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to be prominent. To be able to judge others by what is near to ourselves may be called the method of realizing humanity.30
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Reply #2656. Dec 09 11, 6:07 PM
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Jazmee27
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===
To be a fully human person, a real person, one "merely" has to start out by being a good son or daughter or brother or sister or citizen:
There are five universal ways [in human relations), and the way by which they are practiced is three. The five are those governing the relationship between the ruler and the minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder and younger brothers, and those in the intercourse between friends. These five are universal paths in the world. Wisdom, humanity, and courage, these three are universal virtues. The way by which they are practiced is one.
Some are born with the knowledge [of these virtues]. Some learn it through study. Some learn it through hard work. But when the knowledge is acquired, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them naturally and easily. Some practice them for their advantage. Some practice them with effort and difficulty. But when achievement is made, it comes to the same thing.
Confucius said, "Love oflcarning is akin towisdomjbpractice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know lo be shameful is akin to courage. He who knows thesethree things knows how lo cultivate his personal life. Knowing how to w pfrson.il life, he knows how to govern other men. And knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern the.cmpirc. its stales, and the families.^1
Interestingly, Confucius did not teach about jen directly, perhaps because jen itself is not susceptible to precise formulation, perhaps because humanity is not something that can be taught, or perhaps because Confucius, like so many other sages, was as aware of his own limits as he was of humanity's promise. Confucius said:
I have never seen one who really loves humanity or one who really hates inhumanity. One who really loves humanity will not place anything above it. One who really hates humanity will practice humanity in such a way that humanity has no chance to get at him. Is there anyone who has devoted his strength to humanity for as long as a single day? I have not seen any one without sufficient strength to do so. Perhaps there is such a case, but I have never seen it.32
We are not entitled to despair just because we cannot practice humanity to the fullest, Confucius insists. Perfection is our goal; as such, it is not a requirement. Just start, the sage encourages us, and trust that our innate nature is good. Just start, and if we are sincere, jen will be realized, perhaps not perfectly, but humanely—humanly.
It matters not what you learn; but when once you learn a thing, you must never give it up until you have mastered it. It matters not what you inquire into, but when you inquire into a thing, you must never give it up until you have thoroughly understood it. It matters not what you try to think out, but when you once try to think out a thing you must never give up until you have got what you want. It matters not what you try to sift out, but when you once try to sift out a thing, you must never give it up until you have sifted it out clearly and distinctly. It matters not what you try to carry out, but when once
Wisdom, humanity, an courage, these three are universal virtues. The by which they are if one.
When strict with oneself one rarely fails. Confucius
One who is not a man of humanity cannot endure adversity for long, nor can he enjoy prosperity for long. The man of humanity is naturally at ease with humanity. The man of humanity cultivates wisdom for its advantage.
Confucius
When it comes to the practice of humanity, one should not defer even to his teacher.
Confucius
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Reply #2657. Dec 09 11, 6:08 PM
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Jazmee27
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===
you try to carry out a thing you must never give it up until you have done it thoroughly and well. If another man succeed by ten efforts, you will use a thousand efforts.
Let a man really proceed in this manner, and, though dull, he will surely become intelligent; though weak, he will surely become strong.33
Siddhartha Gautama
The follower of the law, even if he can recite only a small portion of it but, having forsaken passion and hatred and foolishness, possesses true knowledge and serenity of mind; he is attached to nothing in this world or that to come, has indeed a share in the religious life.
Buddha
THE BUDDHA
So powerful was the person and vision of Siddhartha Gautama (c. 560-480 B.C.E.) that he was recognized during his lifetime as an archetype unto himself. Today the archetype of the Buddha is a major source of meaning and purpose for over 2 billion people. The Buddha was a sage, yet more than a sage. He was fully human, yet more than human. Among his many names, perhaps the most enduring are the Awakened or Enlightened One (the original meaning of "the Buddha" in Sanskrit) and the Compassionate Buddha. Yet for all his influence, we have very little factual information about him; most of what we know comes from oral tradition and myth.34
Unlike Confucius, Siddhartha Gautama was born into wealth and power as the son of a prince (rajah) in what is today Nepal. Siddhartha was intelligent and alert, a talented student and athlete. Legend says that he was a first-rate hunter and archer and enjoyed a rich and active life. An only son, Siddhartha was spoiled and indulged by his family; he became a hedonist and a womanizer. At sixteen he married his cousin, but this does not seem to have slowed his pleasure seeking.
The young prince lived in protected isolation, surrounded by servants who catered to his slightest whim. One version of his life claims that Siddhartha's parents took great pains to shield him from the ugliness of life, even surrounding him with young, attractive servants to spare him the sight of the ravages of age. His parents tried to protect him from knowing about poverty, hunger, sickness, and death by seducing him with every imaginable delight—and by trying to confine him within their palatial grounds. Siddhartha should experience only luxury and pleasure.
But Siddhartha was not content. As with many young people, curiosity and rebelliousness led him away from home. During secret trips outside the palace to a nearby city, he saw three of the now-famous Four Signs that altered his life forever: a destitute and homeless beggar, a dead man being prepared for cremation by weeping mourners, a diseased and handicapped person. The seeds of the Buddha were planted when Siddhartha encountered his first sight of suffering.
The sage is neither elated by prosperity nor depressed by adversity. His endeavor always is to rely on himself and to seek his whole satisfaction within himself.
Seneca
Siddhartha the Seeker
Before his forbidden excursions outside the family compound, Siddhartha had no real idea of what sickness or old age could do to the body and spirit. He had no sense of the depths that poverty could reach. He was unaware of the power of grief. The price he had paid for living in a cocoon of soft pleasures and hidden from the suffering of others was a feeling of bored unease. But ignorance could
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Reply #2658. Dec 09 11, 6:09 PM
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Jazmee27
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===
There are superior men who are in accord with the Mean, retire from the world unknown to their age, but do not regret. It is only a sage who can do this.
Confucius
ascetic
Individual who turns away from pleasure and severely limits all sensual appetites in order to achieve salvation or peace of mind.
not protect him forever. Driven by the restless boredom that almost always accompanies an unproductive, self-indulgent life, Siddhartha felt compelled to stray outside. All the pleasures of his wealthy family could not quell his nagging sense of discomfort. He simply had to know more.
The young prince had no one to talk with about his troubling questions except his servant Channa, a hired companion and charioteer, who was also his guardian and bodyguard. To every question Siddhartha raised about life outside the family compound, good Channa could only reply, with great sadness and resignation, "Yes, master, there is no escape. Old age, sickness, death — such is the lot of all men."35
In today's language, we might say that Siddhartha "had his eyes opened." His naive unawareness was spoiled forever. No longer were his pleasures as sweet. Try as he might, Siddhartha could not shake the haunting images of old age, sickness, and death. His anxiety grew. How, he asked himself again and again, could anyone be happy if — ultimately — there is absolutely no escape from suffering, disappointment, sadness, and loss? If no one escapes, why be born at all? How could any woman want to give birth knowing what awaited her child? None of his family or servants could answer him.
Walking outside the palace grounds one day, deep in despair, Siddhartha saw a wandering monk, an ascetic. Ascetics turn away from pleasure and severely limit all sensual appetites in order to achieve salvation or peace of miri^^^^n-cism involves long hours of prayer and fasting, living on plain food, wearing simple clothes. Monks in many cultures live ascetic lives. In Western traditions,
Testament prophets were often ascetics. When John the Baptist and Jesus went into the desert and fasted or lived on locusts, honey, and water, they were going through ascetic trials.
When Siddhartha looked closely into the face of the wandering monk he was astonished to see serenity, purpose, and detachment. This experience was the last of the Four Signs. Here, finally, was a promise of escape from suffering via self-discipline and a program of resistance to the ego's cravings and fears.
Siddhartha knew that he must leave the security of his home and live as a monk, homeless, with only a simple robe and beggar's bowl. He would go to the wisest sages, no matter how far and difficult the journey. He would find someone to tell him the answers to life's most bask questions: Why live if suffering is inescapable? Is it possible to be happy in the face of inevitable sickness, old age, and death? What is the real meaning of life?
The adult has to break his attachment to persons and things.
Walter Lippmann
The Long Search
For years Siddhartha wandered with his beggar's bowl, seeking one master or guru after another. Even though many of them were wise and deeply interested in helping Siddhartha, he did not find his answer. He found only more teachers, and though he learned many clever philosophical notions, as well as techniques for meditating and disciplining the body, he found no satisfying answers to his basic, timeless questions.
Finally tiring of gurus and ordinary sages, he settled in a grove of trees on the outskirts of the village of Uruvela, India. There he formed a little community
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Reply #2659. Dec 09 11, 6:10 PM
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Jazmee27
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/ once went a day without food and all night without sleep to enable me to think. I found no advantage in it; it's best to study.
Confucius
Great Man, being universal in his outlook, is impartial; Petty Man, being partial, is not universal in outlook.
Confucius
If a fool is associated with a wise man even all his life, he will perceive the truth as little as a spoon perceives the taste of soup.
Buddha
Cut out the love of self, like an autumn lotus with your hand! Cherish the road to peace. Nirvana has been shown by the Blessed One.
Buddha
with a few other seekers. For six years he meditated, fasted, and concentrated daily on his original questions. During this time, he is said to have conquered most physical appetites and weaknesses and learned how to control "the mad monkey of the mind."36 But still he found no answers.
In his efforts to subdue his body, Siddhartha nearly destroyed it. He is supposed to have said, "When I touched my stomach I felt my backbone." His extreme asceticism left him a wasted shell. In Buddhist art portraying him during this period, every bone and muscle pushes through his skin. Ultimately, Siddhartha realized that his body was an important instrument in his search, and he realized that he must honor the spirit by honoring the body that houses it. This lesson was clear: The Way cannot be found by either indulgence or denial. We must walk a Middle Path.
Siddhartha's fellow monks were disgusted when he began to take proper nourishment. They had been impressed with his ascetic ways as signs of strength and willpower. From this Siddhartha learned another lesson: We must stop worrying about what others think of us and quit trying to impress people if we are ever to find wisdom. He realized that ascetic self-denial can be of value as a temporary corrective for indulgences or as a momentary cleansing, but it is not an adequate way of life. To subdue the appetites to show strength and willpower is a way of showing off, which prevents one from growing wise.
So Siddhartha returned to his lonely wandering. One day when he was thirty, as he sat in meditation under a fig tree, he was given a special bowl of rice milk by a young woman because he reminded her of a figure she had seen in a vision. In her vision, she had presented rice milk in a golden bowl to a single figure seated under a tree. She took this figure to be a god because of a special glow she saw around him. He was, of course, the Buddha.
Siddhartha accepted the rice milk and, according to one legend, did not eat again for forty-nine days. Another legend says that he divided the milk into numerous portions, and these sustained him during his deepening meditation. After Siddhartha had finished the rice milk, he threw the golden bowl into a nearby river, where it miraculously floated upstream. (This symbolizes the fact that the Buddha's teachings go against the currents of our ordinary, unenlightened thinking, just as Lao-tzu's do.) Siddhartha then ceremoniously bathed in the river, and, taking the lotus position, once more sat under the fig tree and said: "Here I shall remain until I am answered or dead." The tree under which the Buddha sat became known as the Bodhi Tree—the Tree of Wisdom.
Finally, the awakening came. What Buddhist tradition refers to as the "greatest event in human history" occurred during the full moon of May, c. 524 B.C.E. Refusing to be swayed from his goal, heeding some inner call despite all costs, Siddhartha Gautama had transformed himself from a spoiled, pampered young man into "the one who had awakened": the Buddha.
THE BODHISATTVA
According to Buddhist teachings, it is impossible to "explain" the awakening. Nonetheless, we can get a rough idea of what the Buddha "saw." Siddhartha saw
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Reply #2660. Dec 09 11, 6:11 PM
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