Special Sub-Topic: Egypt 8 - The non-Egyptian Pharaohs Click Here To Play: Egypt 8 - The non-Egyptian Pharaohs

Who conquered Egypt after Dynasty 30?

Persians again. They only held Egypt for eleven years before being thrown out by Alexander the Great. Again they are accused of causing great destruction, and there is little evidence of any building. Only Darius III of the three rulers is known to have had his name in a cartouche. Alexander was only in Egypt for a brief time but did order a fair amount of work done. He founded Alexandria but many people described it as being ‘by Egypt’ or ‘against Egypt’ and not actually in Egypt.

What is unusual about the last six years of the rule of Alexander IV?

He was dead. He was the posthumous son of Alexander the Great and Roxanne. In 316 BCE he was imprisoned by Cassandros (one of the feuding group known as the successors) and murdered in 310 or 311. He never visited Egypt which was effectively ruled by the future Ptolemy I. His Egyptian names included Haaibre Setepenamun "the Heart of Amun is Happy, Chosen of Amun", or "Jubilant is the Heart of Re, Chosen of Amun".

Ptolemy I Soter is credited with inventing what?

The god Serapis. Soter means saviour. Serapis was a blend of Osorapis (himself a blend of Osiris and Apis) and several Greek gods including Zeus, Hades and Aesculapius. He had a corn measure on his head and was married to Isis (who did not acquire any Greek aspects). He (or his son) founded the Museum (which included the famous Library) at Alexandria. The word museum is derived from the Muses. It was a research institute, especially noted for its scientific and literary scholarship rather than a store of artefacts like a modern museum.

Ptolemy VIII Eugertes II was nicknamed Physcon. What does this mean?

Potbelly. Eugertes means benefactor but he was described as repulsive, violent and ruthless. After he had been chased out of Egypt by the mob he is reputed to have murdered his son by his sister and wife Cleopatra II and sent her his dismembered corpse as a birthday present. Amazingly, later he seems to have to become reconciled to her. One positive thing he did was send an expedition to explore trade routes to India. Ptolemy IX Soter II was nicknamed Lathyrus – Chickpea and Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos was nicknamed Auletes - fluteplayer. The nickname fluteplayer seems to have implied effeminacy.

Ptolemy XII Auletes had a long Greek name. Which of the following were not part of his name?

All of these (Theos Philopater, Philadelphus, Neos Dionysus). His Horus name was Hununefer Benermerut Tjenisunebetrekhythenakaef Duanefkhnumshepsershezepenefkhatemhedjet Sensenensehenuemhaauminedjitef Tjehenmesuthernesetitef-mihorkanakht Itypesedjemtameri-mihepankh Redinefhebusedashauweru-miptahtatjenenitnetjeru and the other four names of his traditional five part Egyptian royal name were quite long too. Auletes (the flute player) was his nickname. He was illegitimate (no one knows his mother’s name) and depended heavily upon Rome for support for his throne. During his reign Egypt became virtually a client kingdom of the Roman republic Fearing popular insurrection he went to Rome to seek military aid and left his queen (probably his sister as well) and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, as regents. Following his queen's death, the people had made Berenice IV sole ruler. With huge bribes to obtain Roman help he was restored and executed his daughter. Shortly before his death in 51 he proclaimed his eldest surviving daughter, the celebrated Cleopatra VII, and his eldest son coregents.

A woman could not rule on her own. How many co-rulers did the famous Cleopatra have?

Three. She was Cleopatra VII. Her co rulers (none of whom were more than puppets) were her brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV and her son by Julius Caesar, Ptolemy XV or Caesarion. She had three children by Mark Anthony. Augustus murdered Caesarion when he was 14 and paraded the three children in golden chains that were so heavy they could not walk. The two sons of Mark Anthony subsequently died but the daughter Cleopatra Selene was married to Juba II the client king of Numidia and Mauretania and seems to have had a great influence on him.

The Romans' main interest in Egypt was grain but they also exploited minerals. What was found during the reign of Tiberius (in 18BCE)?

Porphyry. "Imperial Porphyry", a brownish purple rock, was discovered at an isolated site in the Eastern Desert of Egypt in CE 18, by a Roman named Caius Cominius Leugas. He left an inscription commemorating this. From his name he was a Celt from the western empire so it is a puzzle what he was doing in the desert. This quarry was worked till the mid fifth century. Apart from a small amount possibly mined by Mussolini no true porphyry has been mined since. Today there are at least 134 porphyry columns in buildings around Rome, all reused from imperial times. There are mines of similar minerals elsewhere. I have seen a photo of one mine – they moved huge blocks from a place where you almost have to use your hands to go up the path. Not too far away is a granite quarry with a broken six foot diameter column estimated to weigh 208 tons. There are records of ten wheeled carts. Surprisingly, the workers were mostly well enough paid to compensate for the terrible conditions and not slaves.

The emperors paid respect to the Egyptian gods (or tried to keep the locals happy). What did Trajan build at Philae?

A kiosk. A kiosk is a type of small openwork temple supported by pillars. The easternmost of the seven arms of the Nile used to flow into the Red Sea, east through the depression of Wadi Tumilat into the area of the Bitter Lakes and from there south to the Red Sea. It does not seem to have been navigable in the time of Pepi II. It may have been reopened or a canal dug during both the middle and new kingdoms but Nekhau, ca.600 BCE dug a canal which may have been finished by the Persian Darius. It was blocked by sand and reopened several times. It was very active in the time of the Ptolemies but in the reign of Cleopatra it was blocked by sand. The Roman emperor Trajan cleaned it out again and it was called "Trajan's river". Hadrian also invested in its upkeep as well.

Some Egyptians were probably given Roman citizenship as a great privilege soon after the conquest. Who gave citizenship to all Egyptians who were not slaves?

Caracalla. The Constitutio Antoniniana, issued by Caracalla (who has often been regarded as one of the most bloodthirsty tyrants in Roman history) conferred citizenship on all free men in the Empire – this is thought to have been a method to increase people’s tax liabilities. The Romans built several temples but they also looted Egypt - thanks to the activities of the emperors Rome has more obelisks than anywhere else in the world.

Which emperor ordered the closing of the Egyptian temples?

Theodosius I. Theodosius closed all pagan temples in the Roman Empire. In 394CE he defeated an army of pagans on the Frigidus River (eastern border of Italy). Thanks to the peoples of independent Nubia, Philae continued as a pagan temple until the reign of Justinian in about 540CE. About this time the Nubians converted to Christianity (and remained Christian until about the 14th century). Constantine was the first Christian emperor but not the first to tolerate Christians.