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You know it as the "Byzantine Empire", but what was it called in Greek?

Basileia ton Romaion. The reign of Heraclius, who ruled from 610 to 641, marked the beginning of the major Hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire, starting from the official proclamation of 620 in which the official language was proclaimed Greek, instead of old Latin. (Obviously, Greek had been used for many purposes before this date). The official name of the land was now Basileia ton Romaion (Kingdom of the Romans) and for most historians, it marked the beginning of the Byzantine Empire.

You have heard of the "Papal States", but what were these territories called officially?

Stati della Chiesa. These were originally the lands in the possession of the Catholic Church from 752, when it was established, till 1870. They were called the States of the Church - or in Italian "Stati della Chiesa".

You know it as the "Holy Roman Empire" What was it called in official documents(pre 15th century, please note!).

Sacrum Romanum Imperium. Although the people who lived under the flag of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly German, the Holy Roman Empire, as the name itself says, claimed to be the descendant of the old Roman Empire. At the time, nearly all official documents in that region were in Latin. The addition of 'Nationis Germanicae' dates informally from the late 15th century and became official in 1512.

You know it as the "Russian Empire" (or simply "Russia"), but its original name was 'Rossiyskaya Imperiya'.

t. This is the exact translation of the name of the state existing mostly on the areas of modern Russian Federation from 1721 to 1917.

You know it as "God wills it!"

Deus vult!. The Papal speeches are held in classical Latin (vulgar Latin was spoken by unlearned masses). This specific cry was used in a speech of 1095, at the Council of Clermont convened by Pope Urbanus II calling for all of Christendom to unite in the First Crusade.

You know it as "The Republic of Venice". What was its formal title in Venice?

Serenissima Republica Veneta. The Most Serene Republic of Venice, the official name of this aristocratic maritime republic, which existed for more than 1,000 years exactly, from 697 till conquered by France in 1797.

You know it as the "Great Seljuq Empire". What did it call itself?

Selçuklular. The Ottoman Turks and Seljuq Turks are two different peoples (Osmanli = Ottoman). 'Arche Seleukia' was the Seleucid Empire established after the death of Alexander the Great.

You know it as the "(Apostolic) Kingdom of Hungary", but its original is Uherské královstvo.

f. "Uherské královstvo" is Czech, the original is "Magyar Királyság". In the original, the 'apostolic' part was excluded, as it was mostly used for propaganda in the Catholic word, also calling the country as the "Kingdom of the Reign of St. Mary", or rhe "Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen". Nevertheless, until well into the 19th century the reigning Habsburg monarch was referred "[His] Imperial Royal Apostolic Majesty" ("[Seine] kaiserliche koenigliche apostolische Majestät" in German). It's among the most monumentally pretentious title of the lot!

The remnants of the Croatian Kingdom left after the invasion of the Turks is popularly known as "Reliquiae reliquiarum", but the original would be "Ostaci ostataka kraljevine Hrvatske"

t. The Croatian form title "The remnants of the remnants of the kingdom of Croatia". Remaining parts of The Kingdom of Croatia were called this, after much of the land being taken by the Ottoman Empire.

You know it as the "Byzantine Emperor". What was the actual title?

Basileus kai Autokrator Romaion. The King and Autocrat of the Romans. This title is in common use after the proclamation of Heraclius in 620, which officially adopted Greek.