Nobel Laureates in Science Trivia Quiz

Answer:

The first years of the Physics prize were dominated by the exploration of the atom, and various forms of radiation associated with them. The first prize went to Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen for the discovery of what we now call X-rays; in 1902 the award was based on research into the relationship between radiation and magnetism which later was useful in determining the nature of various types of radiation; the award in 1903 to Henri Becquerel (split with his assistants) was for work that started in 1896 with an investigation into X-rays, and led to the discovery that uranium compounds spontaneously emitted some kind of radiation that could be recorded on a photographic plate, in a manner similar to X-rays, but without the need to apply an external electrical field to produce them. Later experiments (primarily by Ernest Rutherford) identified that the uranium was releasing two different types of radiation: one the interacted strongly with matter, so was readily absorbed (called alpha particles) and one that was much more penetrating, called beta particles. Rutherford won the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.

The Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi is the one whose name is most closely associated in the popular mind with the development of what we now call radio. Radio waves had been discovered in the 1880s, and found to have properties similar to light (and indeed, they are now considered to be the same type of radiation, electromagnetic radiation, but with a different frequency that that of visible light). In 19895, Marconi used radio waves to send signals over a distance of several kilometres, and subsequently increased the range and the sensitivity of signal. This was assisted by the work of Ferdinand Braun, who developed mechanisms to maintain signal strength between transmitter and receiver, and keep transmitters from interfering with each other.

Both chemists and physicists focused on exploring the structure of matter during the 20th century, and the 1960 award in Chemistry was awarded for an application of radioactivity to determine the age of fossils. Carbon-14 dating is based on the fact that carbon atoms naturally occur in several isotopes (atoms with a different number of neutrons, hence different weights, but still with the chemistry of the same element). Living organisms take in a mixture and use the atoms to produce the materials they need to sustain life; the balance of isotopes stays the same as it is in their environment. When they die, however, the less stable isotopes (specifically, C-14) decay and are not replaced. Measuring the relative amount of C-14 and C-12 in the atoms of a fossil or an ancient artifact can be used to determine how old the specimen is. This was revolutionary when Willard Libby developed it in 1949; other more precise techniques have since been developed, especially for older objects - after some time, radiocarbon dating becomes inaccurate because there is too little C-14 left.

There is often a lengthy delay between when researchers do their work and its significance being recognised. The 2019 Chemistry prize went to three people who had separately (and decades earlier) conducted research that culminated in the production of the ubiquitous lithium-ion battery, used in mobile phones, electric cars, and for solar energy storage. In the 1970s Stanley Whittingham developed the first lithium battery using titanium disulphide, which has the ability to store lithium ions and produce a rechargeable battery. In 1980 John Goodenough developed a lithium battery whose cathode was made of cobalt oxide, which could produce a higher voltage that previous batteries. In 1985 Akira Yoshino developed the first commercially viable lithium-ion battery, using an anode of petroleum coke. Once they became commercially viable, a lot more time and energy was devoted to development and improvement, especially reduction of their flammability and associated risk of explosion.

Physiology and Medicine is an area where the everyday relevance is often more obvious than in the areas of physics and chemistry. The first one was awarded to Emil von Behring for his work in developing a treatment for diphtheria. In 1923 the award was made for the discovery of a way to produce insulin for the treatment of diabetes. the research was carried out in 1921 by Frederick Banting, assisted by Charles Best, in a laboratory run by John MacLeod. The 1945 award was split between three people who made significant contributions to the development of penicillin: Alexander Fleming made the famous accidental discovery that bacteria growing in a neglected petrie dish had not grown as well in the vicinity of a mold that was also developing in the dish in 1928; Ernest Chain and Howard Florey led a team that managed to produce a pure form of penicillin in the 1940s, making its medicinal use practical.

During the first decade of the 20th century Thomas Hunt conducted ground-breaking research on genetics using fruit flies (beloved experimental subjects in many high school biology classrooms), establishing the fact that chromosomes (which had long been visible under a microscope) were basically strings of genes, and explored the interactions between genes. His award in 1933 was followed in 1962 by recognition of the more famous work of Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins (and Rosalind Franklin, not recognised by the Nobel committee) in identifying the structure of the DNA molecules which comprise genes. From here, we have developed such applications as DNA profiling and genetic engineering. And, in 2023, an award for developing a technique for modifying the nucleosides which make up DNA (and RNA) was awarded in recognition of the impact of this technology for developing vaccines against new and rapidly-evolving viruses such as COVID-19. Their work was carried out in 2005, but its medical relevance became obvious in 2020.

While many are familiar with the fact that infectious diseases can be cause by bacteria and viruses, it was not until 1982 that a different form of transmission was developed, a misshapen protein called a prion. Stanley Prusiner was able to explain how this caused Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (and Mad Cow disease), a degenerative brain disorder that had not been previously explained. His work was recognised in the 1995 awards.

For many years, stomach ulcers were considered to be caused by stress, and were treated as a chronic illness that just had to be managed. In 1979 pathologist Robin Warren noticed that there were bacterial colonies around the location of gastric ulcers, and worked with his colleague at Royal Perth Hospital, Barry Marshall, to identify the bacteria. they then went on to prove that these bacteria were the cause of stomach ulcers - or at least, that the bacteria needed to be removed if the ulcer were to be successfully treated. This revolutionised the treatment of stomach ulcers - no longer are sufferers expected to just avoid spicy food, munch on antiacids and drink lots of milk, hoping for the best! It took quite a while for their work to be widely accepted, but they were awarded a Nobel prize in 2005.