Entertainment to Die For Trivia Quiz

Answer: pankration

With a name that sounds very much like a statement of intent, pankration was a form of martial art that combined features of boxing and wrestling, as well as other fighting techniques such as kicking and chokeholds. Since there were hardly any rules, except those barring eye-gouging or biting, it was not uncommon for both opponents to be severely injured during a match; there were also cases of competitions decided by the death of one of the contestants. Generally, a contest was decided when one of the opponents yielded by lifting his index finger. One of the most famous Greek pankratiasts, Arrhichion of Phigaleia, held in a fierce stranglehold, managed to force his opponent to surrender by breaking his ankle even as he was being choked to death, and was awarded the victory posthumously. Not surprisingly, this sport was a great favourite in Sparta, where it was considered very effective training for hand-to-hand combat.

According to Greek myth, this discipline was invented by the heroes Heracles and Theseus, who used it to subdue fearsome adversaries such as the Nemean lion and the Minotaur. Pankratiasts fought in the nude, as was the norm for athletes in the Greek world. For all it no-holds-barred violence, pankration was a very popular Olympic event for over 1,400 years. It was also adopted by the Romans (which Latinized its name as "pancratium"), and made even more violent by the use of battle gloves, made of leather strips often filled with spikes or metal plates - until Emperor Theodosius I outlawed it in the 4th century AD.

Depictions of pankration contests abound in ancient Greek vases and sculptures, as well as literary texts. A famous statue of two pankratiasts (known as "The Wrestlers") can be admired at Florence's Uffizi Gallery: it is a Roman copy of a 3rd century BC Greek original.

Pankration was revived in the late 1960s, and is now considered a form of modern mixed martial art.

Answer: venatio

The Latin word "venatio" (pl. "venationes") means "hunting" (hence the English word "venison"). This form of entertainment involved the hunting and killing of wild animals in the arena - the bigger and fiercer the better. The tradition was first introduced in Rome by 2nd-century BC general Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, but reached its heyday in the Imperial era. "Venationes" were generally held in the morning, before the start of the gladiatorial games. Hundreds of animals could be killed in a single day: in fact, it is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 animals were killed in the first 100 days after the Colosseum was officially opened.

Though the public's preference was for predators such as big cats, bears and crocodiles, large herbivores such as elephants, hippos and bovids (such as the huge aurochs, which is featured in a key scene of Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel "Quo Vadis"), as well as ostriches, often appeared in the arena; wolves, however, were never used in these games because of their religious and cultural significance. Many people engaged in the profitable (though dangerous) business of supplying exotic animals for these bloody games, which were also meant as a display of political power. Indeed, "venationes" offered many employment opportunities: schools existed for the training of hunters ("venatores"), and experienced handlers for the animals were very much in demand. The name "bestiarii" was given to gladiators who fought the wild beasts voluntarily, for money or renown; the word also designated those who were exposed to the animals without any means of defence - generally people sentenced to death ("damnatio ad bestias"). Emperor Commodus (the villain in Ridley Scott's film "Gladiator") was known for fighting exotic animals in the arena.

Sadly, this objectionable sport caused the decline of many animal species, or even their partial extinction: among them, the Atlas bear and the Barbary lion, both natives of North Africa. Modern bullfighting is a direct descendant of the Roman "venationes", though luckily it is becoming obsolete due to the active opposition of animal welfare organizations.

Answer: bull-leaping

Unlike the various forms of bullfighting still practiced around the world, bull-leaping ("taurokathapsia" in Greek) did not involve harming the animal, though of course it could prove dangerous to the person who performed it. This event, associated with religious rituals, is portrayed in a number of artifacts from different ancient civilizations, though the most prominent of them come from the Minoan civilization of Bronze Age Crete, where bulls were held sacred. From these visual documents, it can be inferred that the event involved either grasping the bull by its horns and somersaulting backwards, or vaulting over the horns and performing a somersault once on the bull's back. Most of the Cretan depictions of bull-leaping show no injury or violence, emphasizing instead the skill and gracefulness of the acrobats; the lone exception might be the depiction of a goring on the stone vase known as the Boxer Rhyton (15th century BC).

Though some scholars have questioned whether this event ever took place in real life, there is a lot of evidence of more modern forms of bull-leaping, such as the southern French "course landaise" (in which bulls are generally replaced by aggressive cows), and the "jallikattu" of the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This latter sport appears to be particularly dangerous, with numerous cases of injury and even death (as well as complaints from animal welfare activists), which have led local authorities to repeatedly ban the sport. The Spanish "recortes", which has been described as a form of bullfighting not involving any bloodshed, also shares some of the characteristics of bull-leaping, namely its acrobatic aspect.

Answer: Mesoamerican ballgame

Known as "ollamalitztli" or "tlachtli" in Nahuatl, and "pitz" in Classical Maya, the Mesoamerican ballgame may have originated as early as 1650 BC in the tropical areas of Mexico, both on the Pacific and the Atlantic coast. In these regions, the climate is favourable to the growth of rubber trees, whose latex was used to make the balls. Based on archaeological finds, this sport became widespread in other parts of Mexico. Very little is known about the rules of the game, but it seems likely that its most common form involved hitting the ball with the hips or forearms; some murals, however, show the use of implements such as sticks and racquets. In some later versions of the game, the players tried to pass the ball through vertical stone rings.

The most intriguing aspect of the Mesoamerican ballgame was its association with religious ritual, especially human sacrifice. Reliefs found in various archaeological sites (such as Chichén Itza and El Tajín) depict those sacrifices, which may have involved captives (as was often the case in Mesoamerican cultures), or just members of the losing team; some of these reliefs imply that the game was occasionally played with severed heads and skulls rather than rubber balls. On the other hand, the game was also played informally, for purely recreational purposes, also by women and children.

Over 1,300 ballcourts have been identified in Mexico and Central America, all with the same shape - long and narrow alleys of variable size, enclosed by sloping walls; the ballcourt at the Mayan site of Chichén Itza is one of the largest, with a length of almost 100 m (328 ft). Even without human sacrifices, the game appears to have been dangerous, and injuries inflicted by the heavy ball were anything but rare: Spanish chronicler Diego Durán reports of people being killed when hit in the mouth or in the stomach, in spite of the protective equipment worn by the players. Not surprisingly, the ballgame was suppressed by the Catholic Church after the Spanish conquest of Mexico, though it survived in some areas where the Spanish influence was weaker, such as the northwestern Mexican state of Sinaloa. Ulama (whose name comes from "ollamalitzli"), the modern descendant of the game, has the distinction of being the oldest known game played with a rubber ball.

Answer: lacrosse

Canada's official national summer sport, lacrosse has its roots in a tribal game played by Native American communities in the eastern half of North America and the Great Lakes region; it was especially common among the Six Nations of the Iroquois. The nature of these game is aptly described by the names given to it by various tribes, such as "little war" or "little brother of war". In fact, traditional lacrosse was not just played for recreation, but also to settle scores between opposing villages or tribes: games were played by hundreds of people who met on a large, open plain between the two settlements involved in the dispute. These games lasted several days; the players wore no protective equipment whatsoever, but, in keeping with the game's warlike nature, they elaborately painted their faces and bodies. As can be expected, injuries, and even death, were far from uncommon. Generally preceded by rituals conducted by the tribe's medicine man, the game consisted in hitting a wooden ball with racquet-like sticks; touching the ball with the hands was not allowed. Placing bets before the start of a game was customary, and one of the aspects that made it controversial with Catholic missionaries.

The name "lacrosse" (meaning "the curved stick" in French) was given to the game by a French Jesuit missionary, Jean de Brébeuf, who had seen the game played by Native Americans of the Huron Nation in the 17th century. Over the next couple of centuries, the game was adopted by people of European descent living in North America, who tried to purge it from its more violent elements. Even then, lacrosse remained a very violent form of exercise: as late as 1900, an instance of players attaching lead weights to their sticks to use them as skull-crackers led to the game being banned in Oklahoma.

An interesting historical anecdote about the use of lacrosse for military purposes relates to the capture of Fort Michilimackinac in Upper Michigan in 1763, during Pontiac's Rebellion. A group of Ojibwe Indians tricked the British soldiers into watching a lacrosse game, distracting them, and managed to capture the fort, killing all its British occupants.

Answer: chariot racing

Anyone who has seen the famous sequence in William Wyler's 1959 film "Ben-Hur" has at least some idea of how spectacular and dangerous the ancient sport of chariot racing could be. Archaeological evidence suggests that chariot racing already existed in the Mycenaean world (1600-1100 BC), and the event is mentioned in Homer's "Iliad" as part of the funeral games of Patroclus. When it was added to the Olympic Games in 680 BC, it soon became the most important of the equestrian events. Chariot racing was a highly dangerous pursuit right from its beginnings, as the chariots used for the races were made of wood, lightweight and open at the back; they were pulled by two, four or (very rarely) six horses. Unlike most other athletes, charioteers did not perform in the nude, but wore a sleeved garment that afforded some protection in the likelihood of a crash.

It was during the Roman era, however, that chariot racing came into its own. Large circuses (such as the famous Circus Maximus in Rome, a huge, elliptical structure that could seat over 200,000 people) were built to host these events; racers were professionals, and some of them became extremely rich. In fact, one Roman charioteer, Gaius Appuleius Diocles (2nd century AD), is said to have been the highest-paid sportsman in history. However, few of these people lived very long enough to retire (as Diocles instead managed to do), because of the dangers of their chosen profession: it seems that many charioteers died before they turned 25. Unlike Greek racers, Roman charioteers wrapped the reins around their waist, which in the event of a crash could cause them to be dragged to their death if they were not quick to cut the reins off. To make matters worse, members of the same team often collaborated in order to sabotage rival teams, using tactics that added an additional layer of risk to an already dangerous sport. The use of poison (either on horses or rival charioteers) was also not unknown.

During the Byzantine era, chariot racing replaced gladiatorial games as the general public's favourite form of entertainment. It also acquired a strong political overtone: people used the circus as a place to express their opinions and present petitions to the emperor. The races were also publicly funded, and the emperors belonged to one of the four factions (Greens, Blues, Reds and Whites). This sharp political turn led to widespread violence between opposing factions - like football hooliganism dialed up to 11, often resulting in riots that brought about the deaths of thousands of people, as in the Nika riots during the reign of Justinian I (532 AD). The Sack of Constantinople of 1204 marked the end of chariot racing as mass entertainment.

Answer: jousting

Also known as tilting, jousting (from the Latin "iuxtare", meaning "to approach") was a martial game in which two armoured knights on horseback charged at each other, replicating the clashes of heavy cavalry that occurred in real-life battles. Each participant's goal was to unhorse his opponent, or break his lance or shield. Jousting was often part of a tournament, a competition based on a series of mock fights that was very popular in the courts of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Participating in a joust was a way for royals and nobles to showcase their courage and military skills, and to attract the attention of fair ladies.

Though the first mention of jousting dates from the 11th century, this ancient extreme sport came into its own around the 13th century, when the ideals of chivalry flourished in Europe's courts, inspired by the tales of the Arthurian cycle. In the 15th and 16th century, tournaments became increasingly elaborate, and the winners were awarded large sums of money. The arena where jousts took place, called the list, was a roughly rectangular, roped-off space divided into two halves by a wooden barrier (the tilt that gave the event its alternative name). The horses also wore protective armour for their heads, called "chamfron".

Though this was not always the case, in the golden age of jousting, knights fought with blunted weapons (known as "arms of courtesy"). However, clashes could be very violent, and result in injury; while training was essential for anyone who wished to take part in a joust, even experienced jousters could be seriously injured. King Henry VIII of England suffered a leg wound during a joust in 1539, which impacted his physical and mental health until his death. In 1559, King Henry II of France, Mary Queen of Scots' father-in-law, was wounded in the eye by fragments of a lance wielded by Gabriel Montgomery, the captain of his own Scottish Guard, and died of sepsis a few days later. Because of this tragic event, jousting lost much of its appeal, and its popularity declined all over Europe. By the mid-17th century, it had all but disappeared - except for modern reenactments, especially popular at Renaissance faires.

Answer: calcio fiorentino

Though the word "calcio" ("kick") denotes association football/soccer, the historic sport of calcio fiorentino (also known as "calcio storico", or "historic soccer") has more in common with rugby than the "beautiful game". Its ancestor was probably the Roman ball game of "harpastum" ("snatched away"), popular among legionaries and used as part of gladiators' training. The game was first mentioned in 15th-century documents, when apparently it was played by young men and boys all over the city of Florence. However, calcio fiorentino soon became a sport practiced mainly by nobles and high-ranking clergy; some of the city's rulers were keen calcio players. Games generally took place during the Carnival season; a chronicler reports that a game was played in the winter of 1490 on the frozen surface of the Arno River. The most famous game, however, was the one played on 17 February 1530, when Florence was under siege by the troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

Though calcio fiorentino's popularity faded in the 18th century, it was revived in 1930, under Benito Mussolini, when a tournament was organized involving the four districts ("quartieri") of the city: the Whites (Santo Spirito), the Greens (San Giovanni), the Reds (Santa Maria Novella) and the Blues (Santa Croce). The tournaments have been held regularly since then (except during WWII): they consist of two opening games and a final, which take place in the third week of June. The final is played in the late afternoon of 24 June, the feast of St John the Baptist, Florence's patron saint, in Piazza Santa Croce - pitting the two winners of the opening games against each other. Each team comprises 27 players, all volunteers who do it out of love and pride in their city; the 50-minute match is preceded by a pageant that involves people in gorgeous Renaissance costumes parading through the streets of the city centre.

The calcio fiorentino played today has not changed much from its beginnings: it is still a brutal, unforgiving game, and every year a number of players are hospitalized. Many tactics that are forbidden in soccer are allowed here - such as punching, kicking, tripping and headbutting. Luckily, some of the more extreme moves that were allowed in the past (namely kicks in the head and sucker punches) have been outlawed, and in modern times no deaths have been recorded. The winning team used to be was awarded a calf of the highly prized Chianina breed, which has been now replaced by a free restaurant meal.

Answer: chovgan

Known as the "Game of Kings", chovgan (a Middle Persian word also spelled "chovqan" or "chogan", referring to a kind of curved stick used to catch sheep) is an early form of polo that developed around the 2nd century AD in the Sasanian Empire of Iran. However, it is believed its origins lie much earlier in time, possibly around the 7th century BC, when it was played by the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. In the following centuries, the game became a valuable form of training for elite cavalry units, and could involve hundreds of players. Chovgan came to be played mostly by the nobility - according to some sources, also by women. In the first millennium AD and later, the popularity of chovgan spread from Persia to other parts of the world, such as the Byzantine Empire, Arabia, India and China.

Though in modern times polo is seen as an upper-class pastime, it is still a potentially dangerous activity because of the speed at which it is played and the unpredictability of horses. Prince Charles, Queen Elizabeth II's eldest son, who is a keen polo player, has sustained numerous injuries during his career, some rather serious. In the past, things were even riskier: Chinese emperor Abaoji (9th century AD) reportedly had every player beheaded when one of his favourite relatives died during a game. In Byzantium, the sport - called by the Greek name of "tzykanion" - was played in a stadium ("tzykanisterion") where public executions occasionally took place. This aristocratic but dangerous sport made at least two victims among the Byzantine emperors: in the 10th century, emperor Alexander died of exhaustion after a game, and John I of Trebizond was fatally trampled by his horse. Another illustrious victim of this sport was Qutb al-din Aibak, a general who became the ruler of North India in the 13th century, who died when the pommel of his saddle pierced his ribs.

Chovgan is still played in parts of Western and Central Asia, and was designated as part of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list as cultural heritage of the countries of Azerbaijan (2013) and Iran (2017).

Answer: Palio of Siena

Siena's spectacular but controversial Palio (from the Latin "pallium", referring to the banner awarded to the winner) is run twice a year, on 2 July and 16 August, in the gorgeous, shell-shaped Piazza del Campo, the heart of the medieval city in Tuscany. The race originated in the 13th century, though many of the rules in force today date from the mid-18th century, when the number of city quarters ("contrade") participating in the race was reduced to the current 17. Only ten out of these 17 are chosen to take part in each race, as allowing more runners would increase the chance of accidents (even more common in the past than they are now). On the day before the race, a thick layer of dirt is spread over the square's perimeter, and padded crash barriers are put in place to protect corners. Before the start of the race itself, the spectators massed in the centre of the square or on the balconies of the palaces surrounding the square are treated to the colourful pageant known as "Corteo Storico", involving people in elaborate medieval costumes (known as "alfieri") waving and twirling the flags of the "contrade".

However visually spectacular, the Palio remains a dangerous event, especially for the beautiful thoroughbred horses that are chosen by each "contrada" to run three laps around the square at breakneck speed. The jockeys ride bareback, and use whips on the horses and each other; the race itself is over very quickly, though the preparatory stage can take a long time. According to one Italian animal rights organization, in the years between 1970 and 2007 48 horses died, either during the race or during rehearsals. One of the most recent accidents happened in October 2018, during the extraordinary Palio organized to commemorate the end of WWI: one of the horses had to be put down, and two jockeys were injured. In fact, even if horses are the most vulnerable, the race is potentially dangerous for jockeys as well, especially as stunts like trying to pull a rival jockey off his horse are part and parcel of the game. Since jockeys frequently end up being thrown off their mounts, a horse can win also without a rider. The high temperatures and overcrowded conditions of the piazza pose a danger for spectators as well, and every year a number of people are taken to the hospital because of heatstroke.

In spite of repeated attempts by animal rights organization, and also a few politicians, to ban the race, the Palio is still going strong, and attracts thousands of visitors to Siena every year. Not surprisingly, the people of Siena defend the event fiercely: for them, the Palio is an event that lasts all year round, tightly woven into the fabric of this historic city's life.