Outwit, Outplay, Outlast Trivia Quiz

Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli

Although most of his fame rests on his writings, Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a statesman for most of his life, serving as head of the chancery of the Florentine Republic from 1498 to 1512. During those years, Machiavelli was charged with establishing and organizing a citizens' militia to prevent Florence's over-reliance on mercenary forces; he also undertook over 40 diplomatic missions in other parts of Italy and abroad. One of his missions led him to Cesare Borgia, the infamous warlord son of Pope Alexander VI, who inspired many of Machiavelli's political writings. When the Medici family returned to Florence in 1513, Machiavelli spent a few years in exile; then, in 1519, he was allowed to return to political life. His last appointment was in 1526, as a supervisor of the city's fortifications during the war of the Holy League against Emperor Charles V. After the fall of the Medicis at the end of the war, he was denied his old post at the chancery: it was such a crushing blow to Machiavelli that he fell ill and died at the age of 57. He is now considered the founder of modern political science.

Machiavelli's best-known work, the political treatise "The Prince" (published in 1532), brought Machiavelli a reputation as an amoral cynic. With his own experience as a statesman, and his deep knowledge of history, Machiavelli realized that, while political activity was often rife with violence and treachery, sometimes a beneficial result justifies the objectionable means with which it is obtained. This bleak realism has often been misinterpreted as a recommendation for rulers to behave deviously and dishonestly - hence the term "Machiavellian".

Answer: William Cecil, 1st Lord Burghley

The only son of Sir Richard Cecil, a favoured courtier of Henry VIII, William Cecil (1520-1598) began his career in the service of the Duke of Somerset in the 1540s; he was later elected to Parliament to represent his family borough of Stamford (Lincolnshire). Due to his skilful manoeuvring, Cecil managed to avoid trouble during the reign of Mary I, and - as soon as Elizabeth I became Queen - became indispensable to her. He was appointed Secretary of State in 1558, and remained at the Queen's side until his death, retaining her trust even in difficult circumstances - such as his clashes with her favourite, Robert Dudley. In 1571, he was elevated to the peerage, becoming the 1st Baron Burghley. An opponent of Catholicism, Cecil aimed at uniting the British Isles under the Protestant religion, conquering Ireland and forging an alliance between England and Scotland; his intervention was instrumental in the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587.

Cecil was also a master of diplomacy, which he preferred to war, and exploited his vast network of contacts in other European countries to achieve his ends - which coincided with the Queen's. Appointed Lord Treasurer in 1572, he managed to balance the budget until the war expenditures of the 1580s threatened the country's finances. However, he avoided imposing an excessively heavy tax burden on the population (which would have undermined the Queen's popularity) by keeping a tight rein on the royal household, the military and the navy.

William Cecil retired from public life in the early 1590s. When he died, his son, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, was ready to take his place as the Queen's trusted advisor, and then arrange a smooth transition of power between the Tudors and the Stuarts.

Answer: Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Born of a merchant family, Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) began his career as the Paris agent of Cardinal Mazarin during the latter's exile from the French capital. He then became the Cardinal's personal assistant, which earned him wealth and a barony. Before his death in 1661, Mazarin recommended him to his pupil, the young King Louis XIV, to whom Colbert soon became indispensable. Louis XIV had accessed the throne after years of strife, and France's finances had been mismanaged for years by the powerful Superintendent Nicolas Fouquet, who had enriched himself enormously at the country's expense. Colbert replaced Fouquet (who spent the rest of his life in prison) as the person in charge of France's finances - assuming the title of Controller-General of Finances in 1665.

During his tenure as First Minister of State (which lasted until his death), Colbert reformed the system of taxation, making it fairer, suppressing abuses of collection and preventing false exemption claims on the part of the nobility. This, coupled with increased and reliable supervision, brought large amounts of money into the treasury. Colbert also devoted much of his efforts to reorganizing the structure of French industry and commerce, bringing them up to date with the times; the impulse he gave to manufacturing made French products internationally competitive, challenging the hegemony of the Dutch. In 1669, Colbert became Secretary of the Navy, and turned his attention to making France into a great sea power, reconstructing the shipbuilding industry almost from scratch. Such was Louis XIV's reliance on Colbert that he also made him Secretary of State of the King's Household, putting him in charge of France's intellectual and artistic life.

By the end of his life, Colbert's tireless work had transformed France into a major European power. Such was his impact on the economic organization of his country that he gave his name to the doctrine known as Colbertism.

Answer: William Pitt the Elder

Born of a distinguished family with ties both to nobility and trade, William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778) received a classical education, and became an outstanding orator - which, accompanied to his sharp debating skills, propelled his political career. After spending some time in the military, in the early 1730s he joined a faction of the Whig Party known as the Patriots, and quickly became the leader of the group. After years as a member of the House of Commons, spent in active opposition to Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole - in 1746 Pitt was finally granted a place in government as Paymaster of the Forces, an appointment that lasted ten years.

Pitt's first stint as the de facto leader of the British cabinet came in 1756, at the time of the outbreak of the Seven Years' War - a struggle for supremacy among the major European powers - which had begun disastrously for Britain. Pitt took charge of things, reorganizing the Navy to make it competitive in war at sea, and uniting public opinion behind a concerted effort against France. By 1760, Britain had become the main power in North America and India, and won territories in Africa and the West Indies - drastically reducing France's sway as a colonial power, and effectively establishing the British Empire. After being forced to resign in 1761, he vehemently opposed the Treaty of Paris (1763) because it did not go far enough in crushing France's ambitions. Pitt returned to leadership in 1766, finally accepting the title of Earl of Chatham as a reward for his service. However, he was now suffering from mental and physical illness, and had to resign after a mere two years. In addition, his pleas on behalf of the American colonists, in the attempt to de-escalate the conflict that would lead to the American Revolution, fell on deaf ears.

Pitt's surname of "The Great Commoner" stems from his initial refusal to accept a title. His son, known as William Pitt the Younger, followed in his father's footsteps, becoming the youngest Prime Minister of Great Britain at the age of 24 in 1783, and the first prime minister of the United Kingdom in 1801.

Answer: Alexander Hamilton

Outside of the US, many people know of Alexander Hamilton (1775-1804) through the hugely popular, award-winning musical based on his life. However, his fundamental role in the birth and evolution of the United States of America cannot be understated. Born in the Caribbean, the illegitimate son of a Scotsman, during the Revolutionary War he performed an important role as a liaison officer between George Washington and the French generals - due to his fluency in French. After the War, he concentrated much of attention on criticizing the Articles of Confederation, and emphasizing the need for a strong, centralized government. In support of his opinion, he wrote 51 of the 85 essays known as "The Federalist Papers", written to promote the ratification of the Constitution, and published in 1787-1788.

The high point of Hamilton's political career came in 1789, when he was appointed first Secretary of the Treasury. In Hamilton's bold vision for a strong union, the federal government would fund the national debt, and assume the states' debts; he also advocated for a national bank, modeled on the Bank of England, as a means of regulating the currency. Hamilton became the leader of the Federalist Party, which favoured ties with England rather than France - in sharp contrast with the Democratic-Republican Party led by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton left the cabinet in 1795, but continued to work behind the scenes. He was also particularly active in opposing the international slave trade, and was a fervent abolitionist. Unfortunately, Hamilton made enemies when he tried to prevent the re-election of John Adams, his arch rival, to the presidency. One of these enemies, Vice President Aaron Burr, eventually killed him in a duel in 1804.

Answer: Klemens von Metternich

The scion of a noble family from the Rhineland, Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859) was the son of an Austrian diplomat; Metternich followed in his footsteps, embarking on his first mission at the age of 21. In 1801 he was appointed Austrian minister to the court of the Electorate of Saxony; then, in 1806, he was sent to Napoleon's France, where (also helped by his fluency in French) he gained a deep insight in that country's affairs from his relations with both statesmen and court ladies. This experience helped him gain the post of minister of foreign affairs, in whose capacity he served from 1809 to 1848. In 1810, Metternich secured a period of détente between Austria and France by arranging Napoleon's marriage to Archduchess Marie-Louise, a daughter of the Austrian Emperor, Francis I. Austria's alliance with France ended in 1813, and Metternich earned the long-coveted title of Prince two days after the Battle of Leipzig, in which Napoleon's army was defeated by the Coalition armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Sweden. In 1814, he took the lead of operations in the Congress of Vienna, whose goal was the reconstruction of Europe after the turmoil of the Napoleonic years.

After the end of the Congress and Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo, the Holy Alliance was created between Austria, Prussia and Russia, with the aim of avoiding a repeat of the events of the previous two decades. A fierce opponent of liberalism, Metternich strove to maintain the balance of power in Europe and prevent the breakup of the Austrian Empire by dealing mercilessly with any kind of unrest, both home and abroad. His policies, though heavy-handed in their reliance on policing and censorship, allowed Europe to enjoy a period of relative peace. Firm in his belief that people were tired of strife and yearned for the security guaranteed by his approach, Metternich was unable to stem the revolutionary tide that engulfed Europe in 1848. Increasingly unpopular, he resigned from his post, and went into exile in England. In 1851 he was allowed to return to Austria by Emperor Franz Joseph I, but his health was failing, and he died eight years later.

Answer: Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand

Of all the statesmen mentioned in this quiz, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754-1838) is probably the one whose career best fits the quiz's title. Born of aristocratic parents, he was destined for an ecclesiastic career from an early age, since his clubfoot prevented him from entering the military. In 1780, he was appointed agent general of the clergy, representing the French Church with the French government; in this capacity, he defended the privileges of the Church with remarkable energy. For his efforts, he was appointed Bishop of Autun, just a few months before the French Revolution broke out in July 1789. With the pragmatism that distinguished him throughout his life, after the Revolution he endorsed nationalization of the Church, and was the first bishop to take an oath of loyalty to the new Constitution - which resulted in his eventually resigning from his bishopric. In 1792, the Revolutionary government, noting his skill at negotiations, sent him on a mission to London. The outbreak of the Terror and the execution of Louis XVI in early 1793 forced Talleyrand to flee to the United States. He returned to France in 1796, and the following year he was appointed foreign minister by the ruling Directory.

Talleyrand was quick to tie his fortunes to those of the rising star of French politics, Napoleon Bonaparte, especially after the latter's coup of 9-10 November 1799; in 1806, Napoleon rewarded him with the title of Prince of Benevento. As foreign minister, he strove to keep peace in Europe, negotiating a series of treaties with Austria and England, and contributing to Napoleon's ambitious plan to expand his rule in other parts of the continent. Talleyrand supported Napoleon throughout his Consulate and at the beginning of his rule as Emperor, but resigned in 1807, alarmed by Napoleon's boundless ambition. Trying to avert disaster, he engaged in covert, potentially treasonous contacts with Russia and Austria, and started to prepare the return of the Bourbons to the French throne.

After Napoleon's downfall, Talleyrand represented France at the Congress of Vienna, and remained there during Napoleon's Hundred Days. The returning Bourbon king, Louis XVIII, appointed him president of the council, but he was forced to resign due to the violent opposition of the ultra-royalist faction. Towards the end of his life, he managed to make a comeback by attaching himself to the Liberals, and contributing to the ascent of Louis Philippe in 1830. Though some scholars have regarded him as a traitor because of his cynical opportunism, his undeniable skill as a diplomat and statesman played an essential role in the turbulent Europe of the turn of the 19th century.

Answer: Henry Clay

The son of a Baptist minister from Virginia, Henry Clay (1777-1852) began his career as an attorney in Kentucky at the age of 20. In 1810 he was elected to the House of Representatives, and the following year became Speaker of the House - in time to lead the country, together with President James Madison, in the War of 1812 against Great Britain. His advocacy of the economic plan known as the American System, meant to strengthen and unite the nation after the onerous war effort, began in 1815: the plan included federal investments in infrastructure, a national bank, and protective tariffs. In 1820, Clay helped to avert a crisis over slavery with the passage of the Missouri Compromise in the House of Representative. Clay was appointed Secretary of State by President John Quincy Adams in 1825, and was in office until 1829; during this time, he sought to forge deeper ties between the US and Latin American countries to undermine European influence.

Elected three times as a congressman, and four as a senator, Clay ran for President in 1824, 1832, and 1844; he was also one of the founders of the National Republican Party (1824), which opposed President Andrew Jackson, and of the Whig Party (1833). The most noteworthy achievement of Clay's later career was the Compromise of 1850, which kept the numerical balance between free and slave states after the addition of new territories to the Union following the end of the Mexican-American War; the Compromise delayed the confrontation that led to the Civil War by ten years.

Though Henry Clay never managed to attain the office of President, he was doubtlessly one of the most influential statesmen in the history of the US, and a role model for the likes of Abraham Lincoln. Like Hamilton, he was first and foremost a nationalist, ready to compromise to protect the Union. When he died in 1852, he was the first person to lie in state in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington DC.

Answer: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour

Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810-1861) came from an ancient Piedmontese family with strong ties to France and the Bonaparte family. Being a second son, he embarked on a military career; in his youth, he was inevitably influenced by the many new ideas sweeping through Europe, and developed a fervent patriotism, as well as a rebellious streak that put him at odds with the staid, conservative aristocracy to which he belonged. However, when he was first elected to the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1848, Cavour adopted a more centrist outlook, acquired by witnessing the excesses of revolutionaries and reactionaries alike during his experiences abroad. In 1850, he became minister of agriculture in the cabinet of the new king, Victor Emmanuel II, and soon afterwards minister of finance. During his tenure, he strove to bring about progress and secularization to the Kingdom.

In 1852, Cavour was entrusted with the formation of a new government. Bringing his knowledge of international affairs to bear in his new role, he accepted an alliance with France and Britain against Russia in the Crimean War, which eventually allowed the small Kingdom of Sardinia to sit at the table of negotiations with Europe's major powers. Cavour's gamble secured the help of Napoleon III's France against Austria, which held two of Italy's largest region, Lombardy and Veneto. The Franco-Piedmontese alliance defeated Austria in the Second War of Italian Independence, in which Lombardy became part of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Though Cavour resigned in frustration after the Treaty of Villafranca (1859), he was returned to his post by the king; unfortunately, the annexation of the central duchies of Tuscany and Emilia cost the kingdom two key territories, Nice and Savoy, which were ceded to France. In the spring of 1860, charismatic general Giuseppe Garibaldi took matters into his own hands, launching the expedition of the Thousand that overthrew the Bourbon rulers of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi was also planning to invade the Papal States and conquer Rome, but Cavour (a lifelong advocate of the separation of Church and state) was able to stop him in time.

On 17 March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was declared, and Cavour became its first Prime Minister. However, a few months later, worn out by his hard work and the constant worry about the delicate situation of Rome, he fell ill and died at the age of 50.

Answer: Otto von Bismarck

Born of a family of Prussian landowners, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) began his political career as a staunch religious conservative. His reputation as a reactionary was reinforced by his opposition to the liberal revolutions that ignited Europe in 1848, which he believed were the product of a middle-class "elite", out of touch with the working classes. What set Bismarck apart from other ideological conservatives, however, was his his pragmatic, opportunistic outlook, embodied by his policy of "rewarding" loyal groups with tactical concessions.

Before his first appointment as Prime Minister (1862), Bismarck spent five years as an ambassador in Russia and France, where he gained a more open-minded view of things. Once he became Prime Minister, Bismarck strongly emphasized the role of the Prussian military (as in his famous "blood and iron" speech of September 1862) in the unification of the German territories, and eventually in the defeat of Prussia's greatest European rivals - Austria and France.

The German Empire, Bismarck's greatest political achievement, was born on 18 January 1871 - a result of diplomacy as much as war. Bismarck served as Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, with only a brief interruption, and in 1871 he was also appointed Imperial Chancellor. One of the hallmarks of his tenure was the implementation of an early form of welfare state - which included sickness, accident and old-age insurance - to prevent workers from joining socialist movements (a strategy that did not truly succeed). Between 1871 and 1887, Bismarck was also involved in the bitter struggle between the Prussian (and later German) government and the Catholic Church, known as "Kulturkampf" ("culture struggle"), which undermined Catholic influence especially in education. Bismarck's diplomatic skill resulted in a long period of peace in Europe, after so many decades of almost constant war. However, the German Empire survived him by only 20 years.